RE: VTCT A&P EXAM PAPERS
I have sat some of the VCTC Swedish Body Massage Paper and have been told roughly what the rest is.
Are you sitting the same course if so I can let you have the questions.:)
RE: VCTC Anatomy & Physiology
help! i did my second exam in march 2006 i have a final go on 16th may has anyone sat a& p in morley leeds i wouldnt normally ask for help but as i said it will be final chance or do the course alover again
please help this thicko
multi choice questions
nina
RE: VCTC Anatomy & Physiology
Hiya
Just wanted to say a big thankyou for the question that you where able to remember from yor exam. They've been a big help to me. I'm sitting the vctc a and p exam tomorrow night and feel really tired, I can't read anymore!!!
Thanks again
Gerrabow
RE: VCTC Anatomy & Physiology
Hi there
i am doing the vtct and things have been really bad this year regarding family ect...
i have NOT been able to take anything in whats so ever nearly gave up. However these ols quistion paper do help how do you remember the quistions?
Do you have any swedish/arom case studies????
Would be a great help. To be honest i have been sitting home making them up as i have not had the time to actually do them! (-;
By [link= http://www.healthypages.net/forum/showProfile.asp?memid=16340 ]purrrfecttigrrr[/link]
Only done down to question 14 so far!!!
Unit M67 Digestive and Excretory Systems
1. Describe the position, structure, blood supply, secretions, and functions of the liver.
Structure & Position
Situated in the upper right portion of the abdominal cavity, the liver is divided by fissures (fossae) into four lobes: the right (the largest lobe), left, quadrate and caudate lobes. It is connected to the diaphragm and abdominal walls by five ligaments: the membranous falciform (also separates the right and left lobes), coronary, right and left triangular ligaments, and the fibrous round ligament (which is derived from the embryonic umbilical vein).
The liver is the only human organ that has the remarkable property of self-regeneration. If a part of the liver is removed, the remaining parts can grow back to its original size and shape.
Blood Supply
Venous blood from the entire gastrointestinal tract (containing nutrients from the intestines) is brought to the liver by the hepatic portal vein. Branches of this vein pass in between the lobules and terminate in the sinusoids. Oxygenated blood is supplied in the hepatic artery. The blood leaves the liver via a central vein in each lobule, which drains in the hepatic vein.
· Hepatic vein - one of several short veins originating within the lobes of the liver as small branches, which unite to form the hepatic veins. These lead directly to the inferior vena cava, draining blood from the liver.
· Inferior vena cava - formed by the union of the right and left common iliac veins, collects blood from parts of the body below the diaphragm and conveys it to the right atrium of the heart.
· Hepatic artery - a blood vessel that supplies the liver with oxygenated blood. It supplies 20% of the liver's blood.
· Hepatic portal vein - a blood vessel that drains venous blood into the liver from the entire gastrointestinal tract. It supplies the remaining 80% of the liver's blood.
Functions
Regulations, Synthesis, and Secretion - Hepatocytes (metabolically active cells that serve many functions) take up glucose, minerals, and vitamins from portal and systemic blood and store them. In addition, they produce blood clotting factors, transporter proteins, cholesterol, and bile components. By regulating blood levels of substances such as cholesterol and glucose, the liver helps maintain body homeostasis.
Glucose Liver maintains blood concentrations of glucose, by storing or releasing it as needed.
Proteins - Most blood proteins (except for antibodies) are synthesized and secreted by the liver. One of the most abundant serum proteins is albumin. The liver also produces most of the proteins responsible for blood clotting, called coagulation or clotting factors. If the blood cannot clot normally due to a decrease in the production of these factors, excessive bleeding may result.
Bile A greenish fluid synthesized by hepatocytes and secreted into biliary ducts. Leaves the liver to be temporarily stored in the gallbladder before emptying into the small intestine. Major components of bile include cholesterol, phospholipids, bilirubin (a metabolite of red blood cell hemoglobin), and bile salts. Bile salts act as "detergents" that aid in the digestion and absorption of dietary fats.
Lipids - Cholesterol, a type of lipid, is found in cell membranes and helps maintain the physical integrity of cells. The liver synthesizes it, which is then packaged and distributed to the body to be sued or excreted into bile for removal from the body. Increased cholesterol concentrations in bile may predispose to gallstone formation.
The liver also synthesizes lipoproteins, which are made up of cholesterol, triglycerides (containing fatty acids), phospholipids, and proteins. Lipoproteins circulate in the blood and shuttle cholesterol and fatty acids (an energy source) between the liver and body tissues.
Storage - Liver is designed to store important substances such as glucose (in the form of glycogen). The liver also stores fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K), folate, vitamin B 12 , and minerals such as copper and iron.
Purification, Transformation, and Clearance Liver removes harmful substances (such as ammonia and toxins) from the blood and then breaks them down or transforms them into less harmful compounds. In addition, the liver metabolises most hormones and ingested drugs to either more or less active products.
Ammonia - The liver converts ammonia to urea, which is excreted into the urine by the kidneys. In the presence of severe liver disease, ammonia accumulates in the blood because of both decreased blood clearance and decreased ability to form urea. Elevated ammonia levels can be toxic, especially to the brain, and may play a role in the development of hepatic encephalopathy.
Bilirubin - Yellow pigment formed as a breakdown product of red blood cell haemoglobin. The spleen, which destroys old red cells, releases "unconjugated" bilirubin into the blood, where it circulates in the blood bound to albumin. The liver efficiently takes up bilirubin and chemically modifies it to "conjugated," or water-soluble, bilirubin that can be excreted into bile. Increased production or decreased clearance of bilirubin results in jaundice, a yellow pigmentation of the skin and eyes from bilirubin accumulation.
Hormones - Since the liver plays important roles in hormonal modification and inactivation, chronic liver disease may cause hormonal imbalances. For example, the masculinising hormone testosterone and the feminising hormone estrogen are metabolised and inactivated by the liver.
Drugs - Nearly all drugs are modified or degraded in the liver. In particular, oral drugs are absorbed by the gut and transported via the portal circulation to the liver. In the liver, drugs may undergo first-pass metabolism, a process in which they are modified, activated, or inactivated before they enter the systemic circulation, or they may be left unchanged. Alcohol is primarily metabolized by the liver, and accumulation of its products can lead to cell injury and death.
Toxins - The liver is generally responsible for detoxifying chemical agents and poisons, whether ingested or inhaled. Pre-existing liver disease may inhibit or alter detoxification processes and thus increase the toxic effects of these agents. Additionally, exposure to chemicals or toxins may directly affect the liver, ranging from mild dysfunction to severe and life-threatening damage.
2. Describe the position, structure, and functions of the salivary glands.
Three major pairs of glands, the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual, surround the oral cavity. The lobules of each gland contain numerous ade nomeres that empty their secretions (saliva) through a series of intercalated, striated, and interlobular ducts into the oral cavity. The saliva moistens the food, lubricates the digestive tract, and begins the enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates. The glands also excrete certain salts; they protect against bacterial invasion through the mouth by releasing lysozyme and IgA into the saliva.
3. Describe the position, structure, and functions of the gall bladder.
The gallbladder is connected to the main bile duct through the gallbladder duct (cystic duct or, in Latin, ductus cysticus). The main biliary tract runs from the liver to the duodenum, and the cystic duct is effectively a "cul de sac", serving as entrance and exit to the gallbladder. The surface marking of the gallbladder is the intersection of the mid-clavicular line (MCL) and the transpyloric plane, or the tip of the ninth rib. The blood supply is by the cystic artery and vein, which run parallel to the cystic duct.
Has an epithelial lining characterised by recesses (called Aschoff's recesses), which are pouches inside the lining. Under the epithelium there is a layer of connective tissue, followed by a muscular wall that contracts in response to cholecystokinin.
Functions
Functions as an optional store for the bile secreted by the liver. Bile acids are important in making the fats in the intestine soluble before their digestion and absorption. The gall bladder contracts to eject high concentrations of bile into the intestine when a fatty meal is consumed but it does the same thing when any other sort of meal is taken or even when water is drunk.
Secretes cholesterol and bilirubin into the bile, and herein lies the main problem. Cholesterol is not always in stable solution, even in perfectly healthy people, and can crystallize to form stones. In addition, the soluble conjugated bilirubin may be converted to free bilirubin, which then precipitates. The bile in the gall bladder is therefore an unstable concentrated "soup of chemical problems."
4. Draw and label a diagram of the digestive system from the mouth to the anal canal.
5. Describe the mechanical and chemical processes involved with the breakdown of ingested food in the digestive system.
Mouth - Food is partly broken down by the process of chewing and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produces by the salivary glands and break down starches into smaller molecules).
Oesophagus - After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the oesophagus. The oesophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. This muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink even when we're upside-down.
Stomach - A large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme.
Small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.
Large intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food. Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella) in the large intestine help in the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The food travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the sigmoid colon.
End of the process - Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus.
6. Describe how carbohydrates, protein, and fats are metabolised in the digestive system.
Salivary amylase breaks starch (a polysaccharide) down to maltose (a disaccharide).
Bicarbonate ions in saliva act as buffers, maintaining a pH between 6.5 and 7.5. Mucins (mucous) lubricate and help hold chewed food together in a clump called a bolus.
The tongue contains chemical receptors in structures called taste buds. The tongue is muscular and can move food. It pushes food to back where it is swallowed.
Gastric juice Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin, which digests proteins. Pepsinogen production is stimulated by the presence of gastrin in the blood.
HCl - Hydrochloric acid (HCl) converts pepsinogen to pepsin which breaks down proteins to peptides. HCl maintains a pH in the stomach of approximately 2.0.
It also dissolves food and kills microorganisms.
Mucous protects the stomach from HCl and pepsin.
Gastrin is a hormone that stimulates the stomach to secrete gastric juice.
The pancreas acts as an exocrine gland by producing pancreatic juice which empties into the small intestine via a duct. Pancreatic juice contains sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes the acidic material from the stomach.
Pancreatic amylase digests starch to maltose.
Trypsin and Chymotrypsin digest proteins to peptides. Like pepsin (produced in the stomach), they are specific for certain amino acids, not all of them. They therefore produce peptides.
Lipase digests fats to glycerol and fatty acids.
The liver stores glucose as glycogen (animal starch) and breaks down glycogen to release glucose as needed. This storage-release process maintains a constant glucose concentration in the blood (0.1%). If glycogen and glucose run short, proteins can be converted to glucose.
Hormones
· Gastrin - The presence of food in the stomach stimulates stretch receptors which relay this information to the medulla oblongata. The medulla stimulates endocrine cells in the stomach to secrete the hormone gastrin into the circulatory system. Gastrin stimulates the stomach to secrete gastric juice.
· Secretin - Secretin is produced by cells of the duodenum, its production is stimulated by acid chyme from stomach. It stimulates the pancreas to produce sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the acidic chyme. It also stimulates the liver to secrete bile.
· CCK (cholecystokinin) - production is stimulated by the presence of food in the duodenum. It stimulates the gallbladder to release bile and the pancreas to produce pancreatic enzymes.
· GIP (Gastric Inhibitory Peptide) - Food in the duodenum stimulates certain endocrine cells to produce GIP. It has the opposite effects of gastrin; it inhibits gastric glands in the stomach and it inhibits the mixing and churning movement of stomach muscles. This slows the rate of stomach emptying when the duodenum contains food.
7. Describe the location, structure, and functions of the large intestine as part of the excretory system, and state how waste is eliminated.
The large intestine extends from the end of the ileum to the anus. It is about 1.5 meters long, being one-fifth of the whole extent of the intestinal canal. Its caliber is largest at its commencement at the cecum, and gradually diminishes as far as the rectum, where there is regions to the pelvis, where it forms a bend called the sigmoid flexure; from this it is continued along the posterior wall of the pelvis to the anus. The large intestine is divided into the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal.a dilatation of considerable size just above the anal canal. It differs from the small intestine in its greater caliber, its more fixed position, its sacculated form, and in possessing certain appendages to its external coat, the appendices epiploicæ. Further, its longitudinal muscular fibres do not form a continuous layer around the gut, but are arranged in three longitudinal bands or tæniæ. The large intestine, in its course, describes an arch that surrounds the convolutions of the small intestine. It commences in the right iliac region, in a dilated part, the cecum. It ascends through the right lumbar and hypochondriac regions to the under surface of the liver; it here takes a bend, the right colic flexure, to the left and passes transversely across the abdomen on the confines of the epigastric and umbilical regions, to the left hypochondriac region; it then bends again, the left colic flexure, and descends through the left lumbar and iliac
8. Describe how water is absorbed and eliminated through the digestive system and the skin.
9. Describe the functions of the pancreas, taking into account the islets of langerhan and their secretions.
10. Describe how the gastric juices, pancreatic juices, bile, intestinal juices and relevant enzymes, break down food molecules into their simplest form.
11. State the importance of the excretory system in connection to a healthy body, including the importance of fluid intake.
12. Dexcribe the location, structure and functions of the urinary system.
13. Draw and label a diagram of a nephron, state its blood supply and volume, filtration and re-absorption.
14. Describe in detail how the kidneys regulate body fluids and maintain pH in body fluids.
Unit M66 Skin/ Hair & Nail
1. Give a definition for the following?
a. Anagen - The root of the hair is embedded deep in the dermus, is large and has a pigment. This stage lasts for 3 - 6 years. The epidermal cells surrounding the dermal papilla form the germinal matrix or root of the hair. These cells are constantly dividing, and as new cells are formed they push the older ones upwards where they begin to change shape. By the time the cells are about one-third of the way up the follicle they are dead and fully keratinised. A scalp hair will grow actively for between one and a half and seven years (three years being an average growth period). The average growth rate is about half an inch per month. On average 85% of follicles are in the anagen stage.
b. Catagen - This is the end of the active growth period, and is marked by changes occurring in the follicle. The hair stops growing and becomes detached from the base of the follicle forming a club hair. The hair bulb begins to break down, resulting in the follicle becoming shorter. A small section of the outer root sheath remains in contact with the group of cells that formed the papilla. This period of breakdown or change lasts about three weeks. As the inner root sheath breaks down, the hair remains in the follicle due to its shape. On average, 1% of follicles are in the catagen stage.
c. Telogen - The section of remaining root sheath still in contact with the papilla is known as the secondary or root germ. It is from this germ that a new hair can grow. The shortened follicle rests for about three months. The hair may be brushed out at this time or at the onset of anagen. On average 14% of follicles are in the telogen stage. After the telogen stage the cycle returns to anagen and the root germ begins to grow downwards and forms a new bulb around the dermal papilla. It is the lower end of the germ that forms the new bulb, producing a new hair. The upper part of the germ forms the new cells that lengthen the follicle below the club hair. The new hair may push the old hair out. Sometimes therefore you may see two hairs in the same follicle.
d. Medulla At the center of most hairs is the medulla, made up of large, cuboidal cells, often distinctively colored and interspersed with air pockets.
e. Fibro-blast These are large, flat cells consisting of irregular processes, which produce collagen, elastic fibres, and a matrix of extracellular fluid. Secrete proteoglycans as found in dermis layer of skin.